Hybridity

According to Bhabha, hybridity is the straddling of two cultures and the consequent ability to negotiate the difference. Bhabha developed his concept of hybridity from literary and cultural theory to describe the construction of culture and identity within conditions of colonial antagonism and inequality. For Bhabha, hybridity is the process by which the colonial governing authority tries to convert the identity of the colonized within a singular universal framework. The colonizers would look at the colonized in their own environment and judge their behavior and practices from their own frame of reference.Bhabha contends that a new hybrid identity or subject-position emerges from the interweaving of elements of the colonizer and colonized challenging the validity of any essentialist cultural identity. Hybridity is positioned as an antidote to essentialism, or the belief in invariable and fixed properties which define the ‘whatness’ of a given entity. (The Location of Cul ture 1994) According to Ashcroft, most postcolonial writing has focused on the hybridized nature of postcolonial culture as strength rather than a weakness. It is not a case of the oppressor obliterating the oppressed or the colonizer silencing the colonized.In practice it stresses the mutuality of the process. The clash of cultures can impact as much upon the colonizer as the colonized. It is proof that even under the most potent of oppression those distinctive aspects of the culture of the oppressed can survive and become an integral part of the new formations which arise. (Papastergiadis 1997) Ashcroft says how â€Å"hybridity and the power it releases may well be seen as the characteristic feature and contribution of the post-colonial, allowing a means of evading the replication of the binary categories of the past and developing new anti-monolithic models of cultural exchange and growth†.In conclusion, I believe that hybridity is everywhere. It represents in many instanc es the triumph of the postcolonial or the subaltern over the hegemonic. The resistant always appropriates the cultural onslaught and modifies its products or processes for its own purposes. Hybridity can be a history of slavery colonialism, and rape, inherited in terms of race. It is a difficult and painful history of interracial identity. It deals with issues of choosing one’s affiliations or having ones affiliations thrust upon one.

The Sequence of and the Rate of Development Why Is It Important to Understand This Difference

Samantha Larvin CPY 3. 1 – Understanding child and young person’s development. Explain the sequence and rate of each aspect of development from birth to 19 years. NEW BORN BABY Physical – The first few days of a baby’s life are usually composed of long periods of sleep interspersed with short periods when the baby is awake. The duration of wakefulness lengthens gradually and includes periods of fretfulness, crying and calmness. The responsiveness of the baby depends on the state of sleep or wakefulness (Brazelton and Nugent 1995). At birth the arms and legs are characterisitically stiff (hypertonia) and the trunk and neck floppy (hypotonia). Lying on the back (supine) the arms and legs are kept semiflexed and the posture is symmetrical. Babies born after breech presentation usually keep their legs extended. Pulled to sitting, marked head lag is present. Held in a sitting position, the back is curved and the head falls forward. Placed on the abdonmen (prone) the head is promptly turned sideways. The buttocks are humped up, with the knees tucked under the abdonmen. The arms are close to the chest with the elbows fully flexed. Moro Reflex – Is in born, not learnt. It is normally present in new born baby’s to the age of 3 months. When the baby feels it is falling, the arms are flung back with the hands open, the arms are then together as if to clutch hold of something. Palmer grasp – A reflex in new born baby’s to 6 months. If you touch the palm of a baby’s hand, it’s reaction is to curl it’s fingers around your finger and cling to it. Planter – The reflex in the foot, when you stroke the sole of the baby’s foot. Toes spread out and foot turns inwards, up to the age of 12 months. Communication – Within a few days of birth, infants establish interaction with their carers through eye contact, spontaneous or imitative facial gestures and modulation of their sleep-wakefulness state. Intellectual/Cognitive – Babies are sensitive to light and sound at birth through visual responsiveness varies at birth. From birth onwards, or within a few days, infants turn their eyes towards a large and diffuse source of light and close their eyes to sudden bright light. An object or face must be brought to a distance of 30 centimetres to obtain interest and fixation. Infants usually turn their eyes to slowly follow a face. Social, emotional and behavioural – Patterns of interaction and subtle indications of individuality shown by babies from birth onwards strengthen the emotional ties between infants and their carers. 3 MONTH OLD Physical – Lying on back, prefers to lie with head in midline. Limbs more pliable, movements smoother and more continuous. Waves arms symmetrically, hands loosely open. Brings hands together in midline over chest or chin. Kicks vigorously, legs alternating or occasionally together. When pulled to sit, little or no head lag. Held sitting, back is straight except in lumbar region. Head held erect and steady for several seconds before bobbing forwards. Needs support at shoulders when being bathed and dressed. Lying on abdomen, lifts head and upper chest well up in midline, using forearms to support and often actively scratching at surface with hands, with buttocks flat. Held standing with feet on hard surface, sags at knees. Visually very alert, particularly looking at nearby human face. Moves head deliberately to gaze attentively around. Follows adults movements within their visual outlook. Follows dangling toy at 15-25 centimeters from face through half circle horizontally from side to side and usually also vertically from chest to brow. When lying supine watches movements of own hands before face and engages in finger play, opening and closing hands and pressing palms of hands together. Reaches out to grasp with both hands by 16-18 weeks of age. May move head from side to side as if searching for sound source. Quietens to sound of rattle or small bell rung gently out of sight. Communication – Cries when uncomfortable or annoyed. Often sucks or licks lips in response to sounds of preparation for feeding. Shows excitement at sound of approaching voices, footsteps, running bathwater etc. Vocalises delightedly when spoken to or pleased, also when alone. Vocalisations are integrated with smiles, eye contact and hand gestures during turn taking exchanges or ‘protoconversations’. Intellectual/Cognitive – Holds rattle for a few movements when placed in hand, may move towards face, sometimes bashing chin. Babies are starting to learn how to distinguish between faces and show obvious pleasure when they see a familiar face. Social, emotional and behavioural – Fixes eyes unblinkingly on parent’s or carer’s face when feeding, with contented purposeful gaze. Eager anticipation of breast or bottle feed. Beginning to show reactions to familiar situations by smiling, cooing and excited movements. Enjoys bathing and caring routines. Responds with obvious pleasure to friendly handling, especially when accompanied by playful tickling, child-friendly speech and singing. 6 MONTH OLD Physical –Lying on back, raises head up and moves arms up to be lifted. When hands grasped, braces shoulders and pulls self to sitting. Sits with support with head and back straight and turns head from side to side to look around. Can roll over from front to back (prone to supine) around 5 – 6 months and usually from back to front (supine to prone) a little later at around 6-7 months (Bly 1994). Placed on abdomen, lifts head and chest well up, supporting self on extended arms and flattened palms. Bears weight on feet and bounces up and down actively when held in supported standing with feet touching hard surface. Eye colour is established. Teeth may appear. Moves head and eyes eagerly in every direction when attention is distracted. Eyes move in unison. Follows peoples activities across room with purposeful alertness Communication – Vocalises tunefully to self and others, using sing song vowel sounds or single and double syllables i. e ‘a-a’ ‘goo’. Laughs, chuckles and squeals aloud in play. Screams with annoyance. Shows recognition of carer’s facial expressions such as happy or fearful and responds selectively to emotional tones of voice. Intellectual/Cognitive – Immediately stares at interesting small objects or toys within 15 – 30 centimetres. Shows awareness of depth. Stretches out both hands simultaneously to grasp, adjusts arm and hand posture to orientation of the object. Uses whole hand to palmer grasp and passes toy from one hand to another. Drops one object if another is on offer. Listens to voice, even if adult not in view. Turns to source when hears sound at ear level. Social, emotional and behavioural – Shows a happy response to rough and tumble play. Reacts enthusiastically to often repeated games. Shows anticipation responses if carer pauses before high points in nursery rhymes and other action songs. When offered a rattle, reaches for it immediately and shakes deliberately to make a sound, often regarding it closely at the same time. Still friendly with strangers but sometimes shows some shyness or even slight anxiety when approached too nearly or abruptly, especially if familiar adult is out of sight. Moral – 9 MONTH OLD Physical – Pulls self to sitting position. Sits unsupported on the floor and can adjust body posture when leaning forward to pick up and manipulate a toy without losing balance. Can turn body to look sideways while stretching out to pick up toy from floor. Progresses on floor by rolling, wriggling on abdomen or crawling. Pulls to standing, holding on to support for a few moments but cannot lower self and falls backwards with a bump. Held standing, steps purposefully on alternate feet. Only needs a bit of support when sitting on parent’s or carers lap and being dressed. When being carried by an adult supports self in upright position and turns head to look around. Can reach and grab a moving object by moving towards the anticipated position of the moving object. Picks up small object between finger and thumb with ‘inferior’ pincer grasp. Enjoys casting objects over the side of cot or chair. Communication – Shouts to attract attention, listens then shouts again. Babbles loudly and tunefully in long repetitive strings of syllables e. ‘dad-dad ‘mum-mum’. Responds when name is called. Understands ‘no’ and ‘bye bye’. Reacts to where’s mummy/daddy? by looking around. Intellectual/Cognitive – Shows understanding of things that are usually connected, e. g plays with cause and effect toys and pulls on a string to get the connected toy (c asual understanding). Looks in correct direction for falling or fallen toys (permanence of object) – the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard or touched. Jean Piaget argued that this was one of an infant’s most important accomplishments. At 9 months the baby forms multiple attachments as they become increasingly independent, becoming clingy and look for their primary carer. Bowlby (1969) believed attachment is characterised by specific behaviours in children, such as seeking proximity with the attachment figure when upset or threatened. Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emmerson (1964) discovered that baby’s attachments develop in stages. Social, emotional and behavioural – Throws body back and stiffens in annoyance or resistance, usually protesting vocally at same time. Clearly distinguishers strangers from familiars and requires reassurances before accepting their advances, lings to known person and hides face. Still takes everything to mouth. Plays ‘peek-a-boo’ and imitates hand clapping. Offers food to familiar people and animals. Grasps toys in hand and offers to adult but cannot yet give into adult’s hand. Puts hands on breast or around bottle or cup when drinking, tries to grasp spoo n when being fed, enjoys babbling with a mouthful of food. AGE 12 MONTHS Physical – Sits on floor for indefinite time. Can rise to sitting position from lying down with ease. Crawls on hands and knees, shuffles on buttocks or ‘bearwalks’ rapidly about the floor. May crawl upstairs. Pulls to standing and sits down again, holding onto furniture. Walks around furniture lifting one foot and stepping sideways. May stand alone for a few moments. Walks forwards and sideways with one or both hands held. May walk alone. Fine Motor skills – has a mature grasp, picks up small objects with neat pincer grasp between thumb and tip of index finger. By 13 months reaching and grasping become co-ordinated into one smooth action e. g closing of hand starts during approach and well before touching the object. Communication – Babbles loudly and incessantly in ‘jargon’. Shows by behaviour that some words are understood in usual context i. e car, drink, cat. Understands simple instructions with a gesture, such as ‘come to mummy’. Will follow the gaze of an adult (joint visual attention). Points to objects and then looks back to the adult for a reaction, for the purposes of requesting or eliciting a comment from the adult (Tomasello 1995). Intellectual/Cognitive – Drops and throws toys forwards deliberately and watches them fall to ground. Looks in correct place for toys which fall out of sight. Points with index finger at objects of interest. Uses both hands freely but may show preference for one. Holds two toy bricks, one in each hand with tripod grasp, and bangs together to make noise. Locates sounds from any direction well. Immediately responds to own name. Will put objects in and out of cup or box when shown. Plays ‘pat-a-cake’ and waves ‘good-bye’. Demonstrates understanding by use of objects, e. g hair brush (definition by use). Social, emotional and behavioural – Takes objects to mouth less often. Very little, if any, drooling of saliva. Likes to be insight and hearing of familiar people. Demonostrates affection to familiars. Enjoys joint play with adults, actively switching attention between objects and adult (co-ordinated joint attention). Shows recognition of familiar tunes by trying to join in. 18 MONTHS Physical – Walks well with feet only slightly apart, starts and stops safely. Runs carefully, head held erect in midline, eyes fixed on ground 1-2 metres ahead but finds difficulty in negotiating obstacles. Pushes and pulls large toys or boxes along the floor. Enjoys climbing and will climb forwards into adults chair, then turn around and sit. Walks upstairs with helping hand and sometimes downstairs. Kneels upright on flat surface without support. Flexes knees and hips in squatting position to pick up toy from floor and rises to feet using hands as support. Communication – Chatters continually to self during play, with conversational intonation and emotional inflections. Listens and responds to spoken communications addressed directly to self. Uses between six and twenty recognisable words and understands many more. Echoes prominent or last word in short sentences addressed to self. Hands familiar objects to adult when requested (even if more than one option available). Obeys simple instructions, i. shut the door, get your shoes. Beginning to give notice of urgent toilet needs by restlessness and vocalisation. Bowel control may be attained but very variable, may indicate wet or soiled pants. Intellectual/Cognitive – Picks up small objects immediately on sight with delicate pincer grasp. Recognises familiar people at a distance and points to distant interesting objec ts when outdoors. Enjoys simple picture books, often recognising and putting index finger on boldly cooured items on page. Turns several pages at a time. Holds pencil in mid or upper shaft in whole hand in a pronated grip. Spontaneous to and fro scribble and dots, using either hand alone or sometimes with pencils in both hands. Builds tower of three cubes after demonstration and sometimes spontaneously. Enjoys putting small objects in and out of containers and learning the relative size of objects. Beginning to show preference for using one hand. Assists with dressing and undressing, taking off shoes, socks and hat. Social, emotional and behavioural – Explores environment energetically and with increasing understanding, no sense of danger. No longer takes toys to mouth. Treats dolls and teddies as baby’s, ie hugging, feeding etc. Still casts objects to floor in play or anger, but less often and seldom troubles visually to verify arrival on target. Exchanges toys, both co-operatively and in conflict with peers. 2 YEAR OLD Physical – Runs safely on whole foot, stopping and starting with ease and avoiding obstacles. Squats with complete steadiness to rest or to play with an object on the ground and rises to feet without using hands. Pushes and pulls large wheeled toys easily forward and usually able to walk backwards pulling handle. Pulls small wheeled toy by chord with obvious appreciation of direction. Climbs on furniture to look out of window or to open doors and can get down again. Walks upstairs and downstairs holding onto rail or wall, two feet to a step. Communication – Uses fifty or more recognisable words appropriately and understands many more. Puts two or more words together to form simple sentences. Can understand verbal instructions and react to them and begins to listen with obvious interest to general conversation. Knows and uses their own name and talks to self continually during play but may be not understood to others. Constantly asks names of objects and people, joins in nursery rhymes and action songs. Can carry out simple instructions i. e ‘go and get your teddy and put it in the bag’. Intellectual/Cognitive – Shows increasing understanding of size of self in relation to size and position of objects in the environment and to enclosed spaces such as a cupboard or cardboard box. Good manipulative skills; picks up tiny objects accurately and quickly and places down neatly with increasing skill. Can match square, circular and triangular shapes in a simple jigsaw. Holds a pencil down near towards the point, using thumb and first two fingers, mostly uses preferred hand. Builds tower of six or seven cubes. Enjoys picture books, recognising fine details in favourite pictures. Turns pages singly. Can name and match pictures with toys or with other pictures. Social, emotional and behaviour – Follows parent/carer around the house and copies domestic activities in simultaneous play i. e hoovering. Extremely curious about environment, turns door handles and often runs outside without thought of common dangers. Constantly demanding parent/carer’s attention. Clings tightly in affection, fatigue or fear although resistive and rebellious when stopping them doing something they enjoy. Tantrums when frustrated or in trying to make self understood, but attention is usually readily distracted. Defends own possessions with determination. Resentful of attention shown to other children particularly by own familiars. Moral – May take turns but as yet little idea of sharing either toys or attention. AGE 3 – 7 YEARS Physical – At this stage, children will be able to carry out more co-ordinated movements e. g walking up and down stairs, moves rhythmically to music, grips strongly with either hand, throws and catches a ball well. They will be refining their skills developed so far and will have more control over fine motor skills such as writing, cutting and drawing. Children will be more confident in activities such as running, hopping and kicking a ball and using larger equipment. Throughout this time children should be out of nappies and toilet trained for both day and night. Communication – Speech becomes fluent, loves to be read and told stories. Gives full name, age and birthday. Delights in reciting or singing rhymes and jingles, enjoys jokes and riddles. As children become more social and have wider experiences, they start to use an increasing number of familiar phrases and expressions. They will also ask large numbers of questions and will be able to talk about things in the past and future tenses with greater confidence. Defines concrete nouns by use. Shows sense of humour in talk and social activities. Intellectual/Cognitive – This will be a period of development in which children are becoming skilled at aspects of number and writing, as well as continuing to learn about their world, they will still be looking for adult approval and learning to read. Throws and catches a ball well, plays all varieties of ball games with considerable ability, including those requiring appropriate placement or scoring according to accepted rules. Builds elaborate models when shown, holds cubes with the ulnar fingers tucked in and the hand diagonal to get a better view. Can cut a strip of paper neatly using scissors, can colour pictures neatly, staying within outlines. Can use knife and fork competently. Becomes competent in riding first a tricycle, pushing the feet along the floor and then moving onto a bike with stabilisers, and finally learning to ride a bike without stabilisers. Social, emotional and behavioural – Children will be developing their own identities and will be starting to play with their peers and socialise using imaginative play. This will help them to develop their concept of different roles in their lives. It is important that they are able to learn the importance of boundaries and why they are necessary. They will also respond well to being given responsibility i. e class helpers, dinner money monitors and fruit monitors and will need adult approval. Chooses own friends, can play co-operatively with peers most of the time and understands the need for rules and fair play. Appreciates meaning of time in relation to daily programme. Moral – Shows concern for younger siblings and sympathy for playmates in distress. Understands taking turns as well as sharing. Children should have understanding of respecting each other and adults alike and understand boundaries and rules. AGE 7 TO 11 Physical – Children between this age group enjoy participating in many sports, i. e playing football, being part of a football team in and out of school, going swimming, dancing, gymnastics etc. Communication – By this stage most children will be fluent speakers of a language and will be developing and refining their skills of reading and writing. Their language skills will enable them to think about and discuss their ideas and learning in more abstract terms. Intellectual/Cognitive – Children start to develop ideas about activities they enjoy, they will still be influenced by adults and are becoming fluent in reading and writing skills. They will be developing their own thoughts and preferences and will be able to transfer information and think in a more abstract way. Social, emotional and behavioural – Children’s friendships will become more settled and they will have groups of friends. There is some evidence to suggest that boys friendships are likely to be group based while girls prefer closer but fewer friendships. They will need to have the chance to solve problems and carry out activities which require more independence. They will still need praise and encouragement and will become more aware of what others may think of them. Moral – AGE 12 TO 16 YEARS Physical – Behaviour in this age range is complex. Children physically are changing and hormones might be affecting their moods. In addition, young people will be making the transition from dependence on family to independence. Communication – Young people should be encouraged to talk and negotiate their own boundaries, and be encouraged to be independent. Intellectual/Cognitive – Young people will usually now have a clear idea about their favourite subjects or activities and will usually be motivated in these areas. They will be reflecting on their achievements and choosing their learning pathway. They may lack confidence or avoid situations in which they have to do less popular subjects, to the extent they may truant. Social, emotional and behavioural – At this stage the self esteem of children and young people can be very vulnerable, their bodies will be taking on the outer signs of adulthood but they will still need guidance in many different ways, they will want to be independent of adults and spend more time with friends of their own age, but can continue to display childish behaviour. It is particularly important to teenagers that they feel good about themselves and want to belong. Moral – They can find that they are under the pressures of growing up and have increasing expectations and may be unsure on how to behave in different situations. Young people can find themselves caught between wanting to remain in a group but not wanting to adopt the group’s values and behaviour. AGE 16 TO 19 YEARS Physical – Communication – Intellectual/cognitive – By the time they come to leave school young people will be thinking about career choices based on the pathway and subjects they have selected they will be able to focus on their areas of strength and look forward to continue to develop these as they move on. Social, emotional and behavioural – Children enter adulthood will still sometimes need advice and guidance from other adults. They will lack experience and individuals will vary in emotional maturity and the way in which they interact with others. Moral – B. Explain the difference between: The sequence of and the rate of development: Each child is unique and will develop at their own rate, while they usually follow the same pattern of development the ages at which they reach them may vary. Milestones of development are given as a broad average of when children may be expected to attain a particular stage. You may notice in particular classes or year groups, some children may stand out as they have reached milestones earlier or later than other children. Sometimes if children’s growth patterns are very different from their peers this may have an effect on their behaviour. For example children in the last two years of primary school may become taller and develop some of the first signs of puberty. Girls in particular can become much taller than boys and this can put pressure on them to behave differently. There may need to be additional provision made in these cases for example when getting changed to PE there may also be pupils who are very tall or very small for their age and this can sometimes affect how they are treated by their peers. It can also affect social and emotional development. The patterns of development discussed here should therefore be seen as a guide to help you draw up an overall idea of these different stages. Why is it important to understand this difference:

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Assessment assignmnet - Research Paper Example This power imbalance arises at various stages of the employment relationship, commencing when they seek employment and extends even after their employment has been terminated (Hogbin, 2006, p.13). This theory was propagated by Karl Marx who argued that the bargaining table was tilted in favor of the employer, and who could, as a result, exploit their stronger bargaining position to the detriment of the employees; driving their wages to subsistence levels (Hogbin, 2006, p.1). This imbalance necessitates special regulations in the labor sector. In addition, it is a fundamental human right under the International Labor Organization (ILO). It is enshrined in two key ILO conventions; 87 and 98- 1948 Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize and Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining (1949) respectively, both of which have been ratified by Australia. Individual contracting, while it can be useful for those with strong bargaining power, it is not a solution to empl oyees without bargaining power and can be used to undermine labor standards (Cooper, Ellem & Todd, 2012, p.7). According to Sewerynski (2003, p.223) collective bargaining has a horde of benefits to both the employer and the employee. It enhances the strength and stature of employee unions. They also harmonize employment conditions across the industry and seek to eliminate chances of labor disputes. To add, it has a way of increasing the weight of employee’s dispute. This is because if a complaint is made by an individual employee, the employer can easily ignore it with minimal repercussions. Prior to 1993, there were no legal provisions for collective bargaining in Australia. Nevertheless, the system was collective in nature, with informal collective bargaining taking place in the form of negotiation over award payments, and industrial actions (ACTU, 2006, p.5). Subsequent agreements were given legal effect through consent awards subject to the approval of the commission. In addition, for almost a century, arbitration tribunals had settled industrial disputes between employer and employees, through making and awards that applied to the whole industry that applied to all employees, whether or not they were members of a union (Cooper, Ellem & Todd, 2012, p.5). Subsequently, the Howard government was determined to eliminate this collectivism from the system, instead, advocating for individual contracts (ACTU, 2006, 4). Some of the changes introduced affected collectivisms on two fronts; there were those that were designed to alter collective bargaining, and those meant to impair the effectiveness of the trade unions. This was achieved through the enactment of the Workplace Relations Act, 1996 and the Work Choices amendments of 2005(Cooper, Ellem & Todd, 2012, p.5). The former, was the first Employment relations legislation to make use of corporation power provided under section 51(XX) of the Australian Constitution rather than the conciliation and arbitrat ion power under section 51(XXXV) (IRJ, n.d. 23). With regards to bargaining, the 1996 Act introduced statutory Australian Workplace Agreements (AWAs). AWAs could override both the awards and collective agreements. In fact, such agreements could form a pre-condition of employment

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 24

Leadership - Essay Example Globalization though considered as advantageous for everyone, increases the concern of employees as it brings along change with itself. Change is referred to as doing this differently, in simpler terms; change is the process of doing same jobs in different ways. Change is highly disliked by employees as they fear that they will not be able to cope with change and will lose their jobs, thus employees tend to be an obstacle in the way of organization’s success if they stand against change. For example: In Information Technology industry, continuous change takes place, new software is developed to make work easier and to replace the older software. Employees fear that they might not be able to work on the new software and they resist this change as they fear they will be replaced by people who have knowledge of how to use the software. New software may be helpful in increasing productivity and decreasing loss of time, thus if firms in this industry fail to implement this change, they might continue with lower productivity and time will be wasted, thus they will not be able to compete against those firms that implement such changes. In these scenarios the leaders have to play a major role, they have to step forward and provide proper training to their followers so their followers can easily accept this change, leaders even have to articulate these changes to the employees and have to present a positive and beneficial picture of the acceptance of this change for the employees as well as the organization.

Security assignment IT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Security assignment IT - Essay Example information should retain its integrity both with time as well as user at that particular instance of time. Exposure to corruption, un-monitored changes and destructions disrupt the information to a corrupted or unauthentic state. Information can be corrupted while compilation or storage but in most of the cases it happens while transmission. Availability of information is that it is available for all the users at all the times, so that it can be reached by everyone and is received in an integral form. It also takes into context the positive as well as negative users of the information. This characteristic of information makes the information usability possible only for the purposes known to the data owner. Information is not protected from observation, it can be seen by everyone but it is usable only in the ways known to the author. Information systems have a basic characteristic of identification of the information requester. A system has this characteristic when it can identify the individual user while user sends the request for the information. When the process of identification and authentication is completed, it is checked that the requesting user has the authorization to the requested context and has been provided the authorization permissions from the proper authority. As if information is not confidential, a lot of important business decisions can leak from the strategic departments of the organization, which gives an organization’s strategic information to the competition, which is hazardous to any organization for its financial as well as strategic pursuits. Privacy, authentication and authorization are to make sure the integrity, availability and security of the system. In the lack of these characteristics, information is just a collection of content, which no one knows how to access and anyone can access it without any permissions taken from the owner of the

Child labor in India & Peru Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Child labor in India & Peru - Essay Example One of the key reasons as to why children are being used in the force labor is to support their families due to poverty and other conditions. Lack of schooling and inadequate financial resources, caste system and other socioeconomic conditions force parents to engage their children in child labor Peru is another country with one of the worst records in terms of the child labor, however, its government is believed to be working towards the implementation of strategy to overcome this. What is critical to note that children in Peru are working under the hazardous conditions and are being employed mostly in the agriculture and mining sector? Recent data suggests that approximately 68% of the children under the working age are being employed in various sectors with majority being employed in the agriculture and mining sector. In agriculture sector, children are mostly assumed to be working for growing rice, sugarcane, barley and other crops indicating that the children may be involved in the hard labor wherein they may be forced to work in areas where they may not be suitable for this type of hard labor. The herding of livestock is another area where children are being employed or forced to work. (Bekele and Boyden). It is however, critical to note that most of the forced child labor in the country is in gold mines as mining is the second largest area where children are employed as workers. It is critical to note, however, that the working conditions in the gold mines are relatively difficult and hard for children.

Law Enforcement Today Essay Example for Free

Law Enforcement Today Essay There are many issues facing that law enforcement today from things such as racial discrimination to probable cause and for the officers who go through this on a daily basis it is has been a long and hard fight. In today’s law enforcement agencies there are many local, state and federal agencies that are in contact with the Department of Homeland Security. Racial discrimination is an issue for law enforcement today because there are cases in which a white officer arrests or shoots someone who is a minority and the minority public sees this to be an act of racial discrimination versus it being that someone who happens to be a minority not abiding by the laws that govern them and all the citizens around them as well as attempting to cause harm to those around them. For instance I am sure everyone has heard about the Michael Brown case that occurred in August 2014 where a white police officer shot and killed a black teenager in Ferguson, Missouri which has caused a problem in other agencies while their officers are on the road. Another incident that has become an issue is the safety of officers. For instance back on September 12, 2014 when a man who was seeking change shot and killed a Pennsylvania State Trooper while injuring another. Another issue all local, state and federal agencies deal with would be the issue on immigration. The reason immigration is an issue for police agencies is because when you have a person or a group of people that have come to the U.S. illegally they can cause problems in society that are unwanted and that cause crime to rocket in a specific area or all over the country. Another issue that the police agencies go through would be cybercrime. Cybercrime is a big issue for police agencies because the job of the police department is to protect the citizens and when a child is being bullied to the point the child takes their life or child pornography is being exposed on the internet it is a crime because it is causing someone else to become unsafe as well as it being illegal. Cybercrime is also very difficult for law enforcement  agencies to deal with because they can be very difficult to catch unless someone points out in plain view the specifics of who, when, where, what, and how it is occurring. Local, state and federal law enforcement agencies interact with Homeland Security in many ways. Some ways that these agencies interact with Homeland Security is by helping to continue in keeping the citizens of the United States of America safe report and by eliminate terrorist attacks or anything that will hinder the lives of the American people in any way in the United States. For instance if a local police agency runs a traffic stop that positively identifies known terrorists than they can bring the terrorists for questioning and to alert the state and federal agencies and the government on information about the terrorists and their groups. The way the Department of Homeland Security gets the federal, local and state law enforcement agencies involved is by collecting data, information, tools and resources that each of these agencies are going to need in order help eliminate terrorism in the United States. While trying to get all the agencies involved there are also different things that DHS and the local, state and federal agencies can do in order to improve their relationship. Such things include on how they communicate and share information, enhance federal resources as well as supporting them through grants, training and other means. Lastly, they would be to strengthen its analytic capabilities to achieve better awareness of new and emerging threats. As one who would like to become a police officer one day I too would like to gain access in helping to resolve the issues that the local, state and federal governments are facing today as well as in the future as well as protecting the citizens of the United States. Taking it step by step will help eliminate the threat of terror as well as even the issues of the department and the Standard Operating Procedures they go through.

Artificial Intelligence in Business Applications

Artificial Intelligence in Business Applications Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Business functions that can/cannot be automated INTRODUCTION Computer systems today are a part of almost all businesses; this is because they provide us, along with the added use of the Internet, with a variety of means that made business operations easier, productivity higher, and communication processes faster. Computers and the programs (or the software applications that are installed on them) along with the robotic systems do a great amount of the tasks that were previously performed by the employees and/or workers themselves. This transformation, towards an automated work environment, saved businesses a lot of unwanted expenses, a lot of time, and caused profits to increase steadily. Computers substituted, in different business structures, classical machines and tools, such as the calculator, the fax, the telephone, the photocopier and many more. The automation of different business functions led many organisations and companies to a higher level in what concerns production and management. But the point that should be understood is that even though many processes and functions related to businesses and organisations have been automated, there are still many aspects that are not, or that cannot be, automated for a wide range of reasons. BUSINESS FUNCTIONS The main objective of any business is to achieve success. To be able to reach success, an organisation needs to have an effective structure because any entity depends exclusively on two factors which are management and use of information. An efficient use of information systems can allow an easier and faster access to data that are essential for the workflow and for the quality of that work and, therefore, can assist the management in performing its duties in the best possible manner and in making the right decisions at the right times. In order to achieve such objectives, specific business functions should be established and specific tasks should be performed. Every kind of business and every organisation, depending on the nature of their operations, the products or services that are provided by them, their geographic location, and depending on the management and production schools that they relate to, have different business functions, but there are certain generic functions that apply to all kinds of businesses all over the world. These functions are usually general management, information management, operations management, marketing, finance and accounting, and human resources. Lan and Unhelkar (2005) identify the various generic business functions by stating that they are the function of Management and Administration which is the department whose tasks are to â€Å"corporate resources, corporate image, quality in all aspects, industrial relations, stakeholders relations, productivity, [and] promotion,† the function of Human Resources that should deal with â€Å"job analysis, position classification, employee training, employee selection, employee auditing and promotion† in addition to other related tasks, the function of Finance and Accounts that is responsible for â€Å"the capital operations required by the entire enterprise activities the funds required by management, administration, sales, marketing, human resources, [and] purchasing,† the function of Purchase and Procurement, the function of Sales and Marketing, and the function of Customer Care or Customer Support. According to another source, â€Å"business functions are universal and apply to every type of business. The most essential business functions are marketing, operations (production of goods and services), finance, and human resource management† (Plunkett, Attner, and Allen 2005). Here, we find a view according to which all functions are the same regardless of the type of business. The main question is to understand whether the above mentioned functions can be in whole or in part automated and/or computerised. In other words, can all the tasks concerning the business functions be transferred to intelligent electronic or robotic agents reaching the level of efficiency and proficiency in which humans are capable of performing them? AUTOMATION AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE In order to understand if all (or only some) business functions can be automated, it is important to understand the meaning of the concept itself. According to MSN Encarta (2005) automation is a â€Å"system of manufacture designed to extend the capacity of machines to perform certain tasks formerly done by humans, and to control sequences of operations without human intervention. The term automation has also been used to describe non-manufacturing systems in which programmed or automatic devices can operate independently or nearly independently of human control. In the fields of communications, aviation, and astronautics, for example, such devices as automatic telephone switching equipment, automatic pilots, and automated guidance and control systems are used to perform various operations much faster or better than could be accomplished by humans.† For us to reach such a system, a certain computerised aspect should be developed; an aspect which enables machines to execute given tasks according to the desired level. For such an objective, experts and programmers should be able to produce information systems that possess some of the characteristics of intelligence; this is why such systems are referred to as systems of artificial intelligence, or simply intelligent machines; in other words, computerised systems that are pre-programmed to perform a certain mission with the same level of accuracy of a trained human being. It is the science of creating machines that are intelligent, and in a more specific context, intelligent computer software-programs functioning according to the present hardware. It attempts to comprehend the mechanisms in which human intelligence works and then imitates it in the way the prospective intelligent machines should work, avoiding the limitations of biologically related weaknesses. Bailey (1992) describes his understanding of intelligence as the ability to reason or have a logical thinking, and to have an effect on the environment; this will require a good level of knowledge that should be acquired. To be able to simulate humans, machines should possess the capability of understanding the world. Computers, or intelligent machines, should be knowledgeable on a level that is even deeper and more detailed than we are Depending on knowledge, intelligent machines (or computers or robots) will be in a position to answer any of our questions, they could perform any task efficiently, and they can solve complex and difficult problems much more rapidly. Bailey also states that another important feature that intelligent machines should have is connectivity to each other all around the world through the use of networks, which will make it even easier for them to gain more knowledge and to communicate it to one another. Then there is another feature that is the ability to establish an effective level of communication between intelligent computers and humans through both written and verbal means and not through commands typed through a keyboard and a screen. Finally Bailey puts the physical qualities, such as vision, hearing, as the final of his desired intelligent computer or robot through the use of visual and auditory sensors similar to, or better than, those of humans. AUTOMATING BUSINESS FUNCTIONS The organisational structure is the setting that defines all the departments of the organisation, identifies the responsibilities and duties of each department, regulates the relationship between the various departments and explains how each of them should interact with the others in the way that guarantees the achievement of the desired outcome. As Clarke and Anderson explain, â€Å"an organizational role is defined as a set of functions together with a set of obligations and authorities. The same human or artificial agent can play several roles† [within that specific organisation] (187). The various tools of Information Technology can assist the company in gathering, elaborating, processing, storing/documenting, and distributing all the information that is needed for planning, decision making, and control. The use of computers and the simplicity they offer are important elements in what concerns the enhancement of all the mentioned processes. This fact explains how information technology influences the way in which organisations tend to arrange the tasks and processes within them. Ross (2003) explains that â€Å"information technology (IT) has progressively become key link integrating the business enterprise and its logistics capabilities with its customers and supplies Simply, the organization’s ability to create, collect, assimilate, access, and transfer information must be in alignment with the velocity of the activities necessary to execute effectively supplier, customer service, logistics and financial processes.† As mentioned earlier, many aspects related to the various tasks of businesses are now computerised and/or automated. Accounting and financial processes, for example, are not done only on paper as they once used to be; instead complete computer systems that rely on software applications are those that elaborate, document, communicate, and distribute the various pieces of information among different employees working in different departments. Another example is that related to the processes of sales and marketing which depend heavily on the Internet and the means of communication offered by it. â€Å"Sales force automation modules in CRM [Customer Relation Management] systems help sales staff increase their productivity by focusing sales efforts on the most profitable customers, those who are good candidates for sales and services. CRM systems provide sales prospect and contact information, product information, product configuration capabilities, and sales quote generation capabilitie s† (Laudon and Laudon 2006). For what concerns the accounts and finance function, there are clear indications that many of its tasks have been computerised. â€Å"Large and medium-sized businesses are using ASPs [Application Service Providers] for enterprise systems, sales force automation, or financial management, and small businesses are using them for functions such as invoicing, tax calculations, electronic calendars, and accounting† (Laudon and Laudon 2006). Another form of automation in this context is presented by Sanghvi (2007) as he states that â€Å"online technologies have enabled payroll services to become a popular way for accounting firms to improve client service, enhance loyalty, and gain incremental business Many small business owners turn to their accountant for back-office services while they focus on growing their businesses,† and this means that, through online systems, they can provide the external accountants with all the information needed in order to produce their legally a ccurate and acceptable financial documentation. Concerning human resources management, there are certain computerised systems that are capable of performing the main parts of the process that are related to that function. Torres-Coronas and Arias-Oliva (2005) refer to what they define as e-recruiting; which consists of the â€Å"practices and activities carried on by the organization that utilizes a variety of electronic means to fill open positions effectively and efficiently. The e-recruiting process consists of the following iterative steps: identification of hiring needs; submission of job requisition; approval of the job requisition via a job database; job posting on the Internet; online search of the job database by job seekers, online pre-screening/online self-assessment; submission of applications by applicants directly into an applicant database; online search of the applicant database for candidate selection; online evaluation of rà ©sumà ©/application; interviewing by recruiters/hiring managers; online pre-employment screening; and job offer and employment contract† Another example of a computerised business function, which is auditing, is presented by Caster and Verardo (2007): â€Å"The increasing prevalence of complex computer information systems and electronic data interchanges has made most business transactions electronic in nature Technological advances have altered not only the actual form of evidential matter required to be obtained by auditors, but also the competence of this evidence. Technology has had a significant impact on audit evidence, and existing auditing procedures could be improved in many ways.† The authors indicated that new technologically related regimes of audits have been created to automate the auditing process. Laudon and Laudon (2006) explain that certain businesses took enormous steps towards the automation of the entire processes related to their core activity: â€Å"The management of UPS decided to use automation to increase the ease of sending a package using UPS and of checking its delivery status, thereby reducing delivery costs and increasing sales revenues The technology supporting this system consists of handheld computers, barcode scanners, wired and wireless communications networks, desktop computers, UPS’s central computer, storage technology for the package delivery data, UPS inhouse package tracking software, and software to access the World Wide Web.† The author indicates that the various processes of UPS have improved substantially thanks to the computerisation and inter-connectivity of their functions. When we study the potentials of automation for what concerns business functions, it should be clearly stated that each function is a separate case with its own factors and qualities, which can allow or limit the possibilities of full computerisation of its different processes and tasks. Dorf and Kusiak (1994) state that almost every aspect of the manufacturing process can be automated: â€Å"Most manufacturing operations can be automated. Given the large number of manufacturing processes and assembly operations used in industry (the number is in the thousands) and the many possible ways in which any given operation can be automated.† The authors give different examples of automated systems, such as the Automated Production Lines (which is â€Å"a production system consisting of a series of automated workstations connected by an automatic parts transfer mechanism†), Position and Motion Control Systems (which are required to position â€Å"a work head or tool relative to a work part to accomplish a process†), and the Industrial Robotics (which are â€Å"general-purpose programmable machine possessing certain anthropomorphic characteristics†). When the other business functions are examined, we find that almost every single task within the realm of each function can be automated: Information concerning the major issues related to the business as a whole can be produced by computer systems on regular basis, and passed on to management for examination and study before reaching the right decisions in what concerns the survival and progress of their organisation. Accountancy and financial processes can be completely handled by intelligent systems that can, for example, calculate wages according to working hours, process payments to institutions and banks through electronic means over the Internet, can produce invoices and receipts to customers and suppliers, and can also manage shareholder’s issues. In the human resources function, information and requests can be effectuated electronically, but the final step, which is employees selection, cannot be performed by automated systems; because here the human factor and the hu man inter-activity is, and most probably will always be, the determining point. This is also valid for what concerns sales and marketing, the computerised system can perform all that is needed except the stages related to policy making and to physical delivery of products, as here the human factor is still required. There are certain missing parts if the desired objective is to reach a total automated business; such parts can be overcome only if (or when) we manage to solve deep and important problems in what concerns artificial intelligence. Creating systems that can ‘think’ as humans and can perform tasks related to the human factor will not be a fast endeavour, as we are still in the beginning of what concerns understanding and imitating intelligence. CONCLUSION As mentioned earlier, most of the tasks that are related to virtually all business functions can be computerised and/or automated, but the most important element is still the human factor. At the present level of technology, we are unable to create a fully automated business and we cannot transform an existing business entirely into a computerised one. Some business functions, such as accountancy and information management can be fully automated, some other functions, such as human resources and sales and marketing, can be computerised to a very high level, while other functions, such as general management, cannot be automated. Another reason, beside the technological limitations of the field of artificial intelligence today, is that people (whether customers or suppliers) are still not accustomed to dealing solely with machines. Works Cited Bailey, C. (1992) Truly Intelligent Computers. Coalition for Networked Information [online]. Available from: http://www.cni.org/pub/LITA/Think/Bailey.html>  [cited 13 April 2007]. Caster, P. and Verardo, D. (2007) Technology Changes the Form and Competence of Audit Evidence. The CPA Journal, 77(1), pp. 68-70. Clarke, R. and Anderson, P. (2001) Information, Organisation, and Technology: Studies in organisational Semiotics. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dorf, R.C. Kusiak, A. (1994) Handbook of Design, Manufacturing and Automation. Hobokin, NJ: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Lan, Y.C. and Unhelkar, B. (2005) Global Enterprise Transitions: Managing the Process. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing Inc. Laudon, J. and Laudon, K. (2006) Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Microsoft Encarta 2006. (2005) Automation. [CD-ROM]. Microsoft Corporation. Plunkett, W. R. Attner, R. F. and Allen, G. (2005) Management: Meeting and Exceeding Customer Expectations. Mason, Ohio: Thomson South-Western Publisher. Ross, D. F. (2003) Distribution: Planning and Control 6th ed. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Sanghvi, A. (2007) Improving Service Through Online Payroll. The CPA Journal, 77(3), pp. 11. Torres-Coronas, T. and Arias-Oliva, M. (2005) e-Human Resources Management: Managing Knowledge People. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.

Study on the A Not B Error

Study on the A Not B Error After being discovered by Jean Piaget in 1954 perseveration tasks became one of the main means of investigation in cognitive development psychology, initially in children and later also in non-human animals. The most known of these is the, so called, A-not-B task, which even after many years of research still elicits debates about its underlying mechanisms. This paper aims to provide a review of existing empirical data in order to answer questions of who and why makes the A-not-B error. The first section of the review will give a theoretical background by describing the classic task used by Piaget, the importance of such experiments. This will provide a clear picture of what the A-not-B error is. The two following parts will focus on the questions of who makes the error and why, by an analysis of a set of classic experiments. Each study will be analyzed in terms of its goals, results, and what the impact of these findings is. The last part will include general conclusions based on st udies analyses from previous parts. In order to answer the questions stated in the review title, what is the A-not-B error, who makes it, and why?, classic data will be analyzed in order to determine what the best candidates for explanation of the mechanisms responsible for the error are (in the classic A-not-B task). The most convincing hypothesis will be chosen based on its explanatory power (can it explain most of the existing data?) and its relation to other approaches (can it incorporate other ideas?). Publication of the book The Construction of Reality in the Child in 1954 marks the beginning of research on perseverative tasks in infants. The author, Jean Piaget, described many hide and seek games, invented in order to investigate the understanding of permanence of objects in infants and its changes in time. One of these games became one of the most widely used to explore infant cognition, the A-not-B task. The classic example of its procedure involved a 9 and a half month old child called Laurent. Piaget placed him on a sofa and presented him with two hiding covers, one on the right, and one on the left. Then, he placed his watch under the cover A, and observed Laurent lift the cover to retrieve the watch. After this hiding and seeking was repeated several times, Piaget hid his watch under the cover B. Laurent watched this action attentively, but when given a choice searched back at the location A. As the author put it, at the moment the watch has disappeared under the garment B, he [Laurent] turns back toward coverlet A, and searches for the object under the screen. From this wrong choice, Piaget concluded that Laurent did not understand the independence of objects from his own actions on them. Since these initial results, the A-not-B error has been continuously studied and proven to be a strong and universal phenomenon in human infancy. However, the underlying mechanisms are still being debated, why the error happens and what it means. What is clearer, are the crucial elements of the task to produce the A-not-B error (Smith, 1999). In the original procedure an infant sits in front of two hiding locations that are highly similar and separated by a small distance. While the infant watches, an attractive object (for example a toy) is hidden in one of the locations, described as A. After a delay (which can vary), the infant is allowed to search for the object by reaching to one of the two hiding locations. This hiding and seeking is repeated several times, af ter which the object is hidden again, but this time in location B. Again, after a delay the infant searches for the object. In this traditional method, 8 to 10 month old infants keep reaching back to the initial location A, thus making the A-not-B error. More recent data suggests that there might be also other important elements of the experiment, including posture of an infant, social context, or who the person interacting with subjects is. Before proceeding to a more detailed analysis of existing A-not-B task data, the significance of such research will be briefly described. Investigations of A-not-B task are important for a couple of reasons. Firstly, it provides a clear paradigm to explore the development of infant cognition, how it changes in time. More specifically, it allows investigation how different processes involved in finding the object interact (such as looking, discriminating locations, posture control, and motor planning). Secondly, it also allows comparative experiments when the task is administered to nonhuman animals. Such research allow comparisons of cognitive abilities of different species and how these abilities might have evolved from common ancestors. However, after many years of research there is still no consensus on what is the meaning of the error and what its developmental importance is. The question of what the A-not-B error is has already been answered. The next question is about who makes the error. An answer to this question will be approached by analyzing a selection of studies on the A-not-B tasks which investigated human infants (Homo sapiens), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). The predominant group of participants checked on the A-not-B task are human infants of different ages. Diamond and Goldman-Rakic (1989) investigated extensively how the age of infants and the length of delay between observing and searching influences the commitment rate of the error. The experimental procedure was based on the original task, designed by Piaget. However, several differences were also introduced. Instead of sitting freely, infants were held sitting on their parents lap, prevented from turning or looking at the hiding location during the delay. Care was taken to ensure that the infant was observing the whole hiding process. In order to prevent visual fixation on correct hiding location, the infants were distracted by the experimenter calling them and counting aloud. Correct reaches were rewarded by gaining the hidden object (an attractive toy). In a case of an incorrect reach, the experimenter showed the right choice by uncovering the object, but did not allow the infan t to reach for it. Testing for A-not-B began immediately after the infant first uncovered a hidden toy from one of the hiding places. Different lengths of delays between hiding and searching were introduced to the procedure to check what the crucial time to commit the error was. The first introduced delay was a 2 second one. Most infants below 8-8.5 months of age made the A-not-B error at these or smaller delays, whereas only one infant above 11 months did so. The second delay was 5 seconds. By 8.5 months only half of infants made the error at delays of 5 +/- 2 seconds. By 9.5 months half of the infants required delays greater than 5 seconds for the error to appear. The last experimental delay was 10 seconds, where no infant below 8.5 months had passed, whereas by 12 months the average delay needed to be longer than 10 seconds. An interesting observation from this experiment is that infants who maintained visual fixation on the correct hiding location also reached correctly, while t hose who shifted their gaze, failed to do so (performed at chance levels). Another interesting fact is that infants tried to correct themselves when they made the A-not-B error (but not in the youngest ages). To sum up, the A-not-B error occurs in human infants at delays of 2-5 seconds at 7.5-9 months, and at delays greater than 10 seconds after one year. These findings also are consistent with studies conducted by Gratch and Landers (1971) and Fox et al. (1979) which both found that infants of 8 months made the error at a delay of 3 seconds, as well as with a study by Millar and Watson (1979) which showed that infants of 6-8 months could avoid the error when there was no delay, but committed it with delays as brief as 3 seconds. This last finding corresponds closely with Diamond and Goldman-Rakic who found that infants of 8 months will succeed on A-not-B task if there is no delay, but that they will also fail at delays of 3 seconds. Diamond and Goldman-Rakic used the same procedure to investigate ten rhesus monkeys with prefrontal lesions in comparison to monkeys with different brain lesions (parential), and ones with brains intact. Only animals with the prefrontal lesions committed the A-not-B errors at different delay lengths. There was no significant difference in performance between unoperated and parentially lesioned monkeys. Their age ranged from 2 to 6 years. At the delay of 2 seconds, all monkeys with prefrontal lesions committed the error. At the delay level of 5 second results were similar, all monkeys with prefrontal lesions committed the error. At the delay of 10 seconds the performance of prefrontal animals did not meet criteria for the error (such as at least one error in the reversed trial, the error at least once repeated during the same trial), exactly like human infants below 9 months. Behaviour of prefrontally damaged monkeys was noted to be very similar to that of human infants described befo re. The last research analyzed in order to provide an answer to the question of who commits the A-not-B error was conducted by Topà ¡l et al. (2009) on dogs, wolves, and human infants. In a series of experiments a behavioural analogy between human infants and dogs was found. The goal of the research was to investigate the functional nature of dogs sensitivity to communicative cues in a comparative framework, by the use of the A-not-B task. In one of the experiments dogs were shown to be influenced by the communicative context in their perseverative erroneous searches for hidden objects at a previously repeatedly baited (with a toy) location A, even when they observed the object being hidden at a different location (B). Such results are highly similar to those found in human infants. The task involved looking for a hidden object that the dogs saw being hidden behind one of two identical screens. The first phase consisted of the dog being allowed to repeatedly fetch the object (toy) from behind of the screens (location A). In the test phase, the experimenter hid the toy behind the alternative screen B. Dogs managed to fetch the hidden object correctly in all screen A trials. The main result from the test phase is that dogs in the social-communicative trial (the hider attracted the dogs attention) committed the A-not-B error more often than animals in the non-communicative (hiding with experimenters back turned toward the dog) or non-social (experimenter stayed still while the object was moved between screen by another experimenter, not visible to the dog) version. Additionally, animals in the non-social condition were significantly more successful than chance during the test phases. To sum up, the error was eliminated when the hiding events were not accompanied by communicative signals from experimenters. Dogs were shown to be influenced by the communicative context in their perseverative erroneous searches for hidden objects at the previously repeatedly baited loca tion A, even when they observed the object being hidden at a different location B. Such results are highly similar to those found in human infants. Thus, the A-not-B error was proven to also exist in dogs. Naturally this analysis does not exhaust all existing research on perseverative tasks. However, the aim of this review is to focus on A-not-B error only, in its classic version designed by Piaget. Other species, investigated in different variants of perseverative error tasks, included chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), cotton-top tamarin monkeys (Saguinus oedipus) (Hauser, 1999), as well as magpies (Pica pica) (Gà ³mez, 2005). After the data of who makes the A-not-B error was summarized, an analysis of the underlying mechanisms should follow, to answer the question of why the error is made. In literature different hypotheses are present. Principal of these include areas such as object permanence, memory deficits, information bias, immaturity of prefrontal cortex, and action oriented responses (reaching). The first explanation was provided by the author of the A-not-B task himself, based on his initial research on perseverative errors. Piaget attributed this error to a lack of conception of object permanence in human infants. In his view infants commit the error because they do not understand that an object continues to exist even when out of sight. Their reach back to location A is therefore seen as an attempt to bring that object back to existence. This is the first, historical explanation, which has been disproved by various studies. For example, Baillargeon (1987) has shown that some young infants (3.5-4.5 months) might have some understanding of object permanence. When watching possible (a screen rotating and stopping at a box behind it) and impossible events (a screen rotating as though there was no box behind it), infants looked longer at the impossible ones, which can be understood that they were not expecting them to happen. Similar results were also reported by Ahmed and Ruf fman (1998), where infants who made the A-not-B error in search tasks looked significantly longer at impossible events than possible ones in a non-search version of the task. Such behaviours required a comprehension that when objects are out of sight, they continue to exist. Infants did not expect the object to be retrieved from a wrong place and therefore they had to understand in some sense where the object was actually located. Such results call into question Piagets claims about the age at which object permanence emerges. An alternative explanation focused on memory as a factor responsible for the error occurrence. In her research, Diamond (1985) found that different delay lengths between hiding and object searching affected the rate of the error. Thus the conclusion was that the recall memory was causing the A-not-B error. However, such view was challenged by Butterworth (1977), who found that use of transparent covers in hiding locations does not decrease the error rates, which is inconsistent with the recall hypothesis. Seeing an object underneath a cover should create no need of using the recall memory and lead to the error not being committed, which did not happen. This study also can be used to argue against the hypothesis that competition between different kinds of memory is responsible for the error. Harris (1989; after: Ahmed Ruffman, 1998) proposed that infants make the A-not-B error because of two memory traces in combination with poor attention. In this view, information about the object at location A is held in the long-term memory, whereas information about the object at new location B is kept in a weaker short-term memory. However, the fact that infants continue to make the error even when provided with clear cues of the object location (transparent covers), suggests that the underlying cause is not related to memory issues. Another classic explanation placed the difficulty on the encoding of information. Bjork and Cummings (1984) suggested that encoding at new location B requires more processing (is more complex) than encoding repeated location A because B must be distinguished from A. Sophian and Wellman (1983) also referred to information selection, where prior information was mistakenly selected over the new information about location B because infants forgot current information (which relates strongly to the short-term memory limitations) or because infants did not know that current information should take over. These findings again can be debated in light of the transparent covers study by Butterworth (1977) and the violation-of-expectations study by Ahmed and Ruffman (1998). With the use of transparent covers, encoding new information does not pose major cognitive challenge since the desired object is visible all the time. The proposition of infants not knowing which information should precede is enough ambiguous in itself (what know means in this context, do adults know which information from their environment should be the most valid one?) and is additionally contradicted by the findings that infants look longer at unexpected retrieval of objects from old locations. Therefore, they behave as though they know where the object is currently hidden. All of the hitherto presented hypotheses have met their nemesis data. At this point, two major explanations of the A-not-B error will be presented that yielded wider acceptance. One of them, supported by neuropsychological literature, is the importance of the prefrontal cortex, especially its relation with perseveration and inhibition. The prefrontal cortex is an anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, which is often associated with planning behaviours, decision making, and moderating social behaviour. As Hauser (1999) states it, the act of perseveration (a repeated production of particular action or thought) often represents the consequence of a particular cognitive problem, related to inhibition. In order to prevent perseveration such mechanism is required to reject some alternatives while favouring others, which may involve activation of the prefrontal cortex (Kimberg et al., 1997). Infants, therefore, are highly susceptible to the commitment of the A-not-B error because of their immature prefrontal cortex. The research by Diamond and Goldman-Rakic (1989) provided the first evidence that A-not-B performance depends upon the integrity of the prefrontal cortex and that maturation of this region underlies improvements in the task performance in human infants between 7.5 and 12 months of age. Further support comes from other groups of subjects of this study. Monkeys with lesions in the prefrontal cortex also committed the error, whereas monkeys with brains left intact, managed to choose the correct location B. As the authors noticed, the A-not-B task performance of operated monkeys and 7.5-9 month old human infants was highly comparable (both groups made errors at delays of 2-5 seconds). This significance of the prefrontal cortex can be explained by analyzing two main abilities required for the error to occur, which depend upon the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: temporal separation and inhibition of dominant response (Diamond Goldman-Rakic, 1989). The A-not-B task requires subjects to relate two temporally separate events: hiding cue and searching action. With no delay between hiding and searching even 7.5-9 month old human infants and prefrontally operated monkeys can manage to choose the correct location B. However, even when a brief delay (2-5 seconds) is introduced, they start to fail in object searching. Therefore, the aspect of delay plays a crucial role in committing the A-not-B error. This disadvantage can be overcome when subjects are allowed to maintain visual fixation or body orientation towards the new location during the delay. A similar effect is created by a visible cue which consistently indicates the correct choice (for example a mark on one of the locations). Those two findings indicate a possible involvement of short and long-term memory in the process of committing the error. In the case of fixation on the correct choice, a representation of this choice does not have to be held in short-term memory, and in th e case of learning an association between a landmark and a reward, the long-term memory is activated, guiding reaching behaviour accordingly. This brings back the argument about the role of memory in explaining the A-not-B error. The second ability stemming from the prefrontal cortex, the inhibition of dominant response, is mostly related to the act of reaching for the hidden object. In the A-not-B task subjects are first repeatedly awarded for reaching to location A, which leads to strengthening of this response. However, such conditioned tendency to reach to A must be inhibited in the test trial if the subject is to succeed and reach correctly to new location B. The fact that subjects reach back to location A even when they appear to know where the object is hidden (by looking there) or should know where the object is placed (transparent covers with visible toys), adds validity to the notion that inhibiting the conditioned response is difficult and that memory might not play a maj or role in explaining the error (the problem is not simply forgetting location of an object). Even when the object is hidden, human infants and operated monkeys will often immediately correct themselves if their initial reach was incorrect. It appears therefore that subjects know the object is hidden in location B but still cannot inhibit the initial response of reaching to the previously rewarded location A. However, human infants often look in the direction of the correct hiding place, even when simultaneously reaching to the wrong one. It seems that the act of reaching itself might cause troubles, which relates to the next major explanation of the A-not-B error. Smith et al. (1999) advocated a change in theoretical debates on possible explanations of the A-not-B error. Their explanation focuses on performance and behaviour during the task, which is described as reaching to successive locations in visual space. Errors are made by returning to an original location when the goal location had changed. Reaching to a place consists of a series of ordered steps, beginning with cognition (perceiving the target, forming a goal) and ending with action (selecting a motor pattern, forming a trajectory of the reach). The proposition states that the A-not-B error is mainly a reaching error, emerging from a directional bias to location A created by previous looking and reaching, and because the visual input available to guide the reaching hand is insufficient to overcome the bias (similar covers close to each other, not fully developed reaching skills of 8 to 10 month old infants). Crucial to this hypothesis is the idea of a continuous interaction between looking, reaching, and memory of previous reaches. In other words, it is important that there are two similar potential reaching targets and that infants have a history of repeatedly reaching to one of the locations. Results from experiments by Smith et al. experiments indicated that goal-directed reaches of infants stem from complex interactions of visual input, direction of gaze, posture, and memory (therefore indicating strong context effects). Such a system is inclined towards perseveration since it creates the reach based on current visual input and memories of recent reaches. This bias will prevail whenever the new information input is highly similar to previous reach information or whenever the systems memory of previous reaches is strong. Such an effect could be described as a version of a previously analyzed information bias. These general processes of goal-directed reaching are not specific to a particular moment in development, which suggests that older children and even adults are prone to commit the A-not-B error if placed in the appropriate situation. For example, when no visual cues are given, like in the case of hiding objects in sand (Spencer et al., 1997; after: Smith et al., 1999). However, if these processes are not specific to a certain age, why then a decline in making the error is observed? Authors point to two developmental changes that can contribute to an answer: increasing infants ability to discriminate among visually similar locations, and increasing skill in reaching. Although Smith et al. state that there is no discrepancy between their results and data from investigations of the role of the prefrontal cortex, they do not agree with the explanation placing emphasis on inhibition failure in this region of the brain. In such a view, infants reach successfully to the correct location not because a dominant habit to reach to A was inhibited, but because the current visual information biasing the system in the B direction is stronger than the previously conditioned action towards A. Therefore, direction of the infants reach depends on internal and external dynamics shaping the goal-directed action (outside stimuli and previous experience). The goal of this review was to answer the questions of what the classic A-not-B error is, who makes it, and for what reasons. The answer to the first two is a straightforward one. In order to determine who makes the error, it is enough to administer the original procedure devised by Piaget to various subjects (with slight modifications if used with nonhuman animals). The question of why the error is committed has a more complex nature. A range of proposed explanations have been presented, along with an analysis of how valid these hypotheses are in light of existing empirical data. Due to limitations of space, the review has focused on presenting a summary of the main hypotheses: object permanence, memory deficits, information bias, immaturity of prefrontal cortex, and goal-oriented reaching. The two latter possess the largest explanatory power, as they incorporate or explain elements of other approaches. The most important difference between them is present in the definition of who c an commit the error. In the neuropsychological approach only subjects with immature or a damaged neocortex will make the error, whereas in the reaching approach this error is not so limited. Another main difference concerns the concept of inhibition. Described as a main element of the influence of the neocortex on choosing the right location, it is removed completely from the reaching approach. However, certain similarities are also present, since the neuropsychological hypothesis includes the aspect of programming a goal-oriented reach. Considering these characteristics together, as the best candidate for an explanation of the A-not-B task the immaturity of the neocortex will be chosen. It can provide sufficient explanation for why human infants with immature prefrontal cortex, prefrontally damaged monkeys, and dogs make the error. In the case of the latter, the inhibition process might play the major part. Dogs committed the error mostly in the communicative experimental conditio n, which might suggest that overcoming a bias created that way is too difficult, inhibition in the prefrontal cortex (which is often assumed to organize social behaviour) is too weak. Of possible importance is the domestication process, during which dogs were selected to respond to human communicative signals. In terms of Marrs levels of explanation (Humpreys et at., 1994), the prefrontal cortex could be described as planning behaviours in order to act appropriately in the world (computational level), by the use of inhibition processes (algorithmic level) on the neuronal networks (implementional level). Additional empirical data, obtained in order to validate the prefrontal cortex hypothesis, should include studies on infant rhesus monkeys and other infant species, as well as autistic human children (due to their lack of social skills which could be attributed to malfunctioning prefrontal cortex). A set of such data would allow comparisons with existing findings. Naturally, new rese arch might bring a change of focus in mechanisms underlying the A-not-B error, as the issue of perseverative errors is a complex one and requires further investigation.

Benjamin Harrison :: essays research papers

President Harrison's single term fell between the two terms of Grover Cleveland, a Democrat. Cleveland was popular with the people but unpopular with political leaders. Harrison was popular with neither. There was indeed something of a mystery in his being elected at all. He was serious and dignified, not a hand-shaking politician and not a leader of men. On July 1, 1862, Lincoln called for more troops. Harrison went to the governor, who asked him to recruit a regiment. On his way back to his office, he bought a military cap and hired a fifer and a drummer. Then he put a flag out of his office window and began recruiting. When the regiment was complete, the governor commissioned him a colonel, and Harrison set off with his troops. By day he drilled his men; at night he studied tactics. Always he looked after his soldiers' needs. They called him Little Ben. General Harrison went back to his work at the Supreme Court and his law practice. He also took over again his large Bible class in the Presbyterian church, where his wife taught Sunday school. In 1876 Harrison ran for governor of Indiana. The Democrats called him "cold as an iceberg" and nicknamed him Kid-Glove Harrison. The Democratic candidate, nicknamed Blue Jeans, won the election. Four years later the Indiana legislature elected Harrison to the United States Senate. He served from 1881 to 1887 and won the good will of veterans by supporting the many private pension bills that came to him. Great was the confusion in the Republican nominating convention of 1888. Senator James G. Blaine, the leader of the party, had been defeated by Cleveland in 1884 and refused to run against him again. The field was therefore open. Harrison was finally nominated with Blaine's support. Levi P. Morton, a New York banker, was named for vice-president. Harrison kept aloof from Congress and left lawmaking to its leaders. First on his list was the Dependent Pension Act. This provided money for Civil War veterans who had a disability, no matter where or when they got it. Extravagant appropriations were made also for the Navy and for rivers and harbors. The 51st Congress was the first to spend a billion dollars in peacetime.

Woodstock Essay -- essays research papers fc

The muddiest four days in history were celebrated in a drug-induced haze in Sullivan County, New York (Tiber 1). Music soared through the air and into the ears of the more than 450,000 hippies that were crowded into Max Yasgur's pasture. "What we had here was a once-in-a-lifetime occurrence," said Bethel town historian Bert Feldmen. "Dickens said it first: 'it was the best of times, it was the worst of times'. It's an amalgam that will never be reproduced again" (Tiber 1). It also closed the New York State Thruway and created one of the nation's worst traffic jams (Tiber 1). Woodstock, with its rocky beginnings, epitomized the culture of that era through music, drug use, and the thousands of hippies who attended, leaving behind a legacy for future generations. Woodstock was the hair brained idea of four men that met each other completely at random. It was the counterculture's biggest bash, which ultimately cost over $2.4 million, and was sponsored by John Roberts, Joel Rosenman, Artie Kornfeld, and Michael Lang (Young 18). John Roberts was an heir to a drugstore and toothpaste manufacturing fortune. He supplied the money, for he had a multi-million dollar trust fund, a University of Pennsylvania degree, and a Lieutenant's commission in the Army (Tiber 1). Joel Rosenman, the son of a prominent Long Island orthodontist, had just graduated from Yale Law School (Makower 28). In 1967, he was playing guitar for a lounge band in motels from Long Island to Law Vegas. He and Roberts met on a golf course in the fall of 1966 (Tiber 1). By the next winter, Roberts and Rosenman shared an apartment and were trying to figure out what to do with their lives. One idea was to create a screw ball situation comedy for television (Landy, Spirit 62). "It w as an office comedy about two pals with more money than brains and a thirst for adventure," Rosenman said. To get plot ideas for their sitcom, Roberts and Rosenman put a classified as in the Wall Street Journal and Fanning 2 the New York Times in March of 1968 that read: "Young men with unlimited capital looking for interesting, legitimate investment opportunities and business propositions" (Tiber 1). Artie Kornfeld was the vice-president of Capitol Records. He smoked hash in the office and was the Company's connection with the rockers that were starting to sell millions or reco... ...ug use, and the thousands of hippies who attended, leaving behind a legacy for future generations. II. How Woodstock got Started; The Events Leading up to Woodstock0 A. Woodstock was the hair brained idea of four men that met each other completely at random. B. The four met to discuss their idea at a high-rise on 83rd Street. C. "In the cultural-political atmosphere of 1969, Kornfeld and Land knew it was important to pitch Woodstock in a way that would appeal to their peer's sense of independence. III. The Four Days of Woodstock A. After a much-anticipated wait, Friday, August 15, 1969, arrived. B. On Friday, Joan Baez was the headliner†¦and Sly and the Family Stone. C. There were people everywhere. D. There was a tent dubbed the Freak-Out Tent, which in reality was the nurses' station. IV. The Aftermath A. After the final hippie drudged out of Max Yasgur's pasture, the problems for Woodstock Ventures began. B. For the next decade, Woodstock was virtually a clichà © for all that was goofy and bad about the '60's. V. Conclusion Summary Sentence: A good time was had by all, and although it has been tried, perfection cannot be imitated.